among others, Butterworth & Whittaker, 1980 Hartsuiker, 2002 Shattuck-Hufnagel, 1979 Stemberger, 1991 Stemberger & Treiman, 1986). It has further repeatedly been reported that speech errors exhibit an addition or intrusion bias, for instance manifest in the tendency for errors to create clusters (e.g., public speaking в‡’ spublic speaking cf. Therefore, the more similar two segments are, the more they will both be activated to a similar degree and the likelihood of the wrong node being selected will increase. Since activation flow is bidirectional, the feature node will not only receive top-down activation from the current segment node, and will also feed back activation to all segment nodes it is connected to (i.e., all voiced segments). Activation from the currently processed node (e.g., a segment node) will indirectly spread to another segment node if these two segment nodes share a phonological feature (e.g., ). In Dell's spreading activation model of speech production ( Dell, 1986 and subsequent) the similarity effect in errors arises from the bidirectional spreading of activation between nodes (nodes are linguistic processing units: syllables, onset clusters, segments, features, etc.).

Dell (1984) showed that this effect is not restricted to immediately adjacent sounds, but that also a shared final consonant can cause an interaction of the initial consonants. MacKay (1970) reported a repeated phoneme effect, meaning that errors are more likely to occur in the vicinity of identical segments (cf. For instance, for the interacting consonants themselves, error rate has been reported to increase with a higher number of shared phonological features (e.g., Dell, 1986 Fowler, 1987 Fromkin, 1971 Nooteboom, 1969 Shattuck-Hufnagel, 1986 Shattuck-Hufnagel & Klatt, 1979). Generally speaking, the more two elements have in common, the more likely they are to interact in an error, where the notion of having something in common comprises prosodic position, stress, featural composition, as well as neighboring material. It has long been known that similarity plays a pivotal role in triggering these kinds of speech errors: Similar utterances will lead to increased competition and will thus be more liable to error during processing (among others, Dell, 1984 Goldrick & Blumstein, 2006 Levitt & Healy, 1985 Shattuck-Hufnagel, 1992 Vousden, Brown, & Harley, 2000). During phonological processing individual sounds come to be arranged in their appropriate вЂ“ or, for an error, inappropriate вЂ“ sequence. Models of speech production generally assume that errors below the level of the word, so-called sublexical speech errors (e.g., fonal phonology for tonal phonology), arise through competition or interference during the phonological processing stage in utterance encoding. The findings suggest that the proportion of different error types (substitutions, co-production errors) differs as a function of stimulus type: not all alternating stimulus patterns that trigger errors result in an intrusion bias. While all conditions exhibited both substitution and co-production errors, a gestural intrusion bias emerged mainly for the coda condition. The three-word phrase condition elicited an intermediate error rate for the stop consonants, but a high error rate for the fricative alternations. The no-coda condition showed a lower error rate than the coda condition.

Subjects repeated two-word phrases with alternating initial stop or fricative consonants in a coda condition (e.g., top cop), a nocoda condition (e.g., taa kaa) and a three-word phrase condition (e.g., taa kaa taa). Capturing tongue motion with ultrasound, the current paper investigates whether shared gestural composition other than a coda can trigger gestural co-production errors. This gestural intrusion bias has been interpreted as an errorful coupling of gestures in a dynamically stable coordination mode (1:1, in-phase), triggered by the presence of a shared coda consonant. A principled connection between these two phenomena has been drawn in a gestural account of errors: Articulatory measures revealed a preponderance of errors in which both the target and intruding gesture are co-produced, instead of one replacing the other. Speech errors are known to exhibit an intrusion bias in that segments are added rather than deleted also, a shared final consonant can cause an interaction of the initial consonants.

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